Bulgaria Under Communist Rule

Bulgaria’s shift to communism started on September 9, 1944, when the Fatherland Front, backed by Soviet forces, led a coup that overthrew the existing government. This coup began Bulgaria’s alignment with the Soviet Union and the establishment of a communist regime. Over the following decades, Bulgaria experienced significant political, economic, and social changes as it closely followed Soviet policies. From 1944 to 1989, the country was characterized by rapid industrialization, political repression, and the Sovietization of various aspects of life.

The Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP), with leaders like Georgi Dimitrov, quickly consolidated power. They implemented Soviet-style policies, such as nationalizing industries, collectivizing agriculture, and suppressing political opposition. Elections during this period were heavily controlled, ensuring the BCP’s dominance and eliminating political pluralism. These changes laid the foundation for Bulgaria’s deep integration into the Eastern Bloc and its role within the Soviet sphere of influence.

Establishment of Communist Rule (1944–1950s)

The Political Landscape before September 9, 1944

By August 26, 1944, Bulgaria was in political turmoil. The country had been an ally of Nazi Germany, but as the Red Army approached, the government under Ivan Bagryanov sought to distance Bulgaria from the Axis powers. On September 2, 1944, a new government was formed under the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BANU) “Vrabcha 1”, led by Konstantin Muraviev. The intention was further to formalize the withdrawal of Bulgaria from the war and declare neutrality. However, the rapid advance of Soviet forces made this policy shift irrelevant.

The Coup of September 9, 1944

On September 5, 1944, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria. This declaration, coupled with the Soviet Army’s entry into Bulgaria, catalyzed the coup on September 9, 1944. The coup was organized by the Fatherland Front, a coalition dominated by the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) but included other leftist groups. With Soviet support, the coup was executed swiftly, toppling the Muraviev government. Kimon Georgiev, a member of the Zveno military organization and the Fatherland Front, assumed the position of Prime Minister. Bulgaria immediately switched allegiance to the Allies, declaring war on Germany.

The Purge of Political Opposition (1944–1945)

Following the September 9, 1944, coup, the new government established the People’s Courts to eliminate opposition. The courts targeted wealthy business owners, accusing them of exploiting the working class and collaborating with the former regime. Prominent industrialists like Ivan Grozev and landowners such as Dimitar Savov faced harsh sentences, with their assets nationalized by the state. Intellectuals and progressive thinkers, including university professors and writers like Petar Marinov, were also targeted for their non-alignment with communist ideology, leading to imprisonment or worse.

Persecution of Differently-Thinking Individuals

The regime’s crackdown extended to any form of dissent, labeling those with opposing views as anti-communists. This persecution was widespread, with over 30,000 individuals brought before the People’s Courts. Approximately 2,700 were sentenced to death, while many others received lengthy prison terms or were sent to labor camps. This period, known as the “Red Terror”, was marked by the swift and brutal suppression of any potential threats to the new communist government.

Establishment of a One-Party State

In addition to individual persecution, the government systematically dismantled political opposition by dissolving all parties not aligned with the Fatherland Front. By 1945, Bulgaria had transformed into a one-party state under the absolute control of the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP). This consolidation of power set the stage for the totalitarian regime that would govern Bulgaria for the next four decades.

The Rise of the Bulgarian Communist Party (1945–1946)

Under Georgi Dimitrov’s leadership, the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) consolidated its power. Dimitrov, who had gained prominence as a communist leader in exile during the 1930s, returned to Bulgaria in 1945 with Soviet backing. The BCP began a systematic takeover of all key state institutions, including the military, police, and media.

The 1945 Elections and Fatherland Front Victory

The 1945 parliamentary elections in Bulgaria faced criticism and allegations of manipulation primarily from opposition parties and international observers. These groups raised concerns about the fairness and transparency of the election process, which they argued was heavily influenced by the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) and the Fatherland Front to secure their dominance. Despite these criticisms, the election results were upheld, consolidating the BCP’s control over the country.

The Abolition of the Monarchy

The national referendum to determine the future of the Bulgarian monarchy took place on September 8, 1946. The referendum, which resulted in a majority vote to abolish the monarchy, was marred by accusations of irregularities, primarily from opposition groups and international observers who raised concerns about the fairness of the vote. Following the referendum, Bulgaria was declared the People’s Republic on September 15, 1946, leading to the exile of the last monarch, Tsar Simeon II, and the formal establishment of a communist state.

Sovietization of Bulgaria (1947–1950s)

With the establishment of the People’s Republic, Bulgaria began a comprehensive process of Sovietization. This included the nationalization of industries and banks, the collectivization of agriculture, and the implementation of Soviet-style five-year plans to industrialize the country rapidly. The government also initiated extensive purges within its ranks to remove any remaining non-communist elements, and political repression became the norm, with the State Security (DS) playing a pivotal role in monitoring and controlling the population.

The 1947 Constitution and the Consolidation of Power

The consolidation of communist rule was further solidified with adopting the Dimitrov Constitution in December 1947. Modeled closely on the Soviet Constitution of 1936, it enshrined the principles of Marxism-Leninism as the guiding ideology of the state and formally established the BCP’s monopoly on power. The new constitution also led to the complete nationalization of private enterprises, the abolition of private property on land, and the establishment of a centrally planned economy.

During this period, opposition to the regime was harshly suppressed. The BCP entrenched its power under the leadership of figures like Georgi Dimitrov and later Vasil Kolarov and Valko Chervenkov. Bulgaria became one of the most loyal Soviet satellite states, fully integrated into the Eastern Bloc.

Industrialization and Economic Policies (1950s–1970s)

Industrialization

During the 1950s and 1970s, Bulgaria’s industrialization was marked by establishing key factories across various sectors, transforming the nation’s economy. Economic planning was based on five-year planning cycles that were approved centrally.

Chemicals

The chemical industry saw the establishment of major facilities, such as the Devnya Chemical Complex near Varna, which began operations in 1958. This complex produces fertilizers, soda ash, and other chemical products, positioning Bulgaria as a significant player in the Eastern Bloc’s chemical industry.

Electronics and Technology

In electronics, the Pravets Computer Factory, established in 1979 in Pravets, became famous for producing the Pravets series of computers, among the first personal computers in the Eastern Bloc and the World. This factory was instrumental in Bulgaria’s development as a leader in electronics within COMECON.

Energy

Bulgaria also focused on energy infrastructure, beginning in 1970 with the construction of the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant. This plant became operational in the 1970s and was a critical component of Bulgaria’s energy production, supplying electricity domestically and to neighboring countries.

These industrial developments, supported by state resources and Soviet aid, were integral to Bulgaria’s transformation into an industrial economy. However, they also created long-term economic dependencies and challenges that would emerge in the later years of communist rule.

Machinery

In machinery, the Vazov Engineering Works (VMZ) in Sopot, established in 1936 and expanded throughout the 1950s and 1960s, became a major producer of military equipment and heavy machinery. The Cherven Bryag Machine-Building Plant, founded in 1967, was also crucial in producing railway equipment and industrial machines.

Pharmaceutical Industry

During the 1950s and 1970s, Bulgaria’s industrialization led to significant advancements in the pharmaceutical industry, making it a critical economic sector. The state established major pharmaceutical factories, such as the manufacturing facilities in Dupnitsa, Troyan, and Razgrad, which became crucial in producing generic drugs, antibiotics, and essential medicines for domestic use and export within the Eastern Bloc. Sopharma, founded in 1933 and expanded during the communist era, focused on herbal medicines and biotechnological products, contributing significantly to Bulgaria’s pharmaceutical exports and healthcare.

Steel Production and Heavy Industry

In the steel industry, the Kremikovtsi Steel Complex, located near Sofia and completed in 1967, became the cornerstone of Bulgaria’s metallurgical production. It was the largest steel mill in Bulgaria and significantly contributed to the country’s industrial output.

Agricultural Collectivization

Parallel to industrialization, the Bulgarian government pursued a policy of agricultural collectivization, aiming to consolidate small farms into large, state-run cooperatives. While increasing agricultural output, this policy led to significant disruptions in rural life. Many small farmers resisted collectivization, but the government enforced it through incentives and, at times, coercion. By the late 1950s, most Bulgarian agriculture had been collectivized, with state farms becoming the primary mode of agricultural production.

Economic Reforms under Todor Zhivkov

Todor Zhivkov, who became the leader of Bulgaria in 1954, introduced economic reforms to address inefficiencies in the centrally planned economy. These reforms, while still within the socialist framework, sought to introduce elements of decentralization and improve productivity. Zhivkov’s policies included the New Economic Mechanism, allowing market-driven decision-making within the state-controlled economy. These reforms had mixed success but were crucial in maintaining Bulgaria’s economic stability during his rule.

Bulgaria’s Role in COMECON

As a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), Bulgaria’s economy became increasingly integrated with that of the Soviet bloc. COMECON facilitated trade and economic cooperation between socialist states, with Bulgaria specializing in specific industrial sectors, such as electronics and food processing, to supply the needs of the Eastern Bloc. This economic dependency on the Soviet Union provided Bulgaria with markets for its goods but also made it vulnerable to fluctuations in Soviet economic policy.

These decades of industrialization and collectivization transformed Bulgaria’s economy, but they also laid the groundwork for the economic challenges the country would face in the later years of communism.

Political Repression and Social Control

Following the establishment of communist rule, Bulgaria experienced severe political repression. The State Security (DS), the secret police, was instrumental in suppressing dissent. The DS carried out extensive surveillance, arrests, and interrogations of perceived enemies of the state, including intellectuals, former officials, and religious leaders. Political purges were common, particularly in the late 1940s and 1950s, targeting members of the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) itself who were seen as potential threats to the regime. Thousands were imprisoned, sent to labor camps, or executed under accusations of anti-communist activities or espionage.

Censorship and Propaganda

The Bulgarian government exercised tight control over the media, arts, and education to propagate communist ideology and suppress dissent. All forms of media were state-owned, and censorship was rigorously applied to ensure that only content aligned with party lines was published. Literature, theater, and film were used as tools for propaganda, glorifying the achievements of socialism and vilifying the West. Marxist-Leninist ideology also heavily influenced educational curricula, with history and social sciences particularly manipulated to promote the regime’s narrative.

Cult of Personality around Todor Zhivkov

Todor Zhivkov, who became the leader of Bulgaria in 1954, cultivated a significant cult of personality during his time in power. His image was omnipresent in public life, with statues, portraits, and slogans glorifying his leadership. The state-controlled media portrayed Zhivkov as a wise and benevolent leader, integral to Bulgaria’s progress under socialism. This cult of personality legitimized his long rule, which lasted until 1989 and reinforced the perception of stability and continuity in the face of internal and external challenges.

Social Changes under Communism

During the communist era, Bulgaria underwent profound social changes that shaped the nation’s education, healthcare, and urbanization. These reforms were integral to the government’s efforts to transform Bulgaria into a modern socialist state.

Education and Literacy

Bulgaria’s education system expanded significantly under communist rule, leading to one of the highest literacy rates in the world. By the 1960s, over 90% of the population was literate. The government built numerous schools across the country, focusing on rural areas where access to education had previously been limited. For instance, by 1955, the number of primary schools had reached 5,000, and secondary schools also saw substantial growth. Higher education institutions like Sofia University expanded their offerings to align with socialist ideals, focusing on science and technology. This emphasis on education was part of a broader strategy to create a skilled workforce capable of supporting the country’s industrialization efforts.

Healthcare and Social Welfare

The communist government prioritized healthcare, making it free and accessible to all citizens. Between 1944 and 1980, hospitals increased by 40%, and specialized medical centers were established in major cities. By 1985, Bulgaria had over 200 hospitals and 1,200 health centers. Public health campaigns successfully reduced the incidence of infectious diseases, and life expectancy increased significantly during this period. Social welfare programs were also expanded, providing pensions, disability benefits, and family support. These measures contributed to improved living standards, although they were often accompanied by significant state control over personal freedoms.

Urbanization

Urbanization was a key component of Bulgaria’s communist-era development strategy. The government promoted the migration of people from rural to urban areas to support industrialization. As a result, the urban population increased from 25% in 1946 to over 60% by the late 1970s. New cities, such as Dimitrovgrad, were founded, and existing cities, like Sofia, Plovdiv, and Varna, saw rapid expansion. The construction of extensive residential complexes (Lyulin and Mladost neighborhoods in Sofia), known as “panelki“, was standard, aiming to provide affordable housing for the growing urban workforce. This urbanization process helped transform Bulgaria into a more industrial society, although it also led to challenges such as overcrowding and the strain on urban infrastructure.

Under the communist regime, Bulgaria experienced significant urbanization and infrastructure development, with large-scale construction projects transforming the urban landscape. One of the most prominent examples is the National Palace of Culture (NDK) in Sofia, completed in 1981. The NDK symbolized the regime’s emphasis on monumental architecture and cultural development.

Infrastructure projects also included delayed national road and railway network expansion and improving connectivity across the country. The construction of major hydroelectric dams, like the Batak Dam, provided energy resources crucial for the country’s industrialization efforts.

Relations with the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc

Military and Political Alliances

After World War II, Bulgaria solidified its alignment with the Soviet Union by joining the Warsaw Pact in 1955. This military alliance was central to Bulgaria’s defense strategy, heavily influenced by Soviet military doctrine. Soviet advisors played a significant role in training the Bulgarian military, which adopted many Soviet practices and weaponry.

Bulgarian Military during the Communist Era

Army Structure and Troops

During the communist era, the Bulgarian People’s Army (BPA) was one of the most significant military forces in the Eastern Bloc, aligned with the Warsaw Pact. The BPA was structured into ground, air, and naval forces, with around 150,000 active personnel at its peak in the 1970s. The ground forces comprised mechanized infantry, armored divisions, and artillery. Bulgaria also maintained an extensive reserve force, with mandatory conscription for young men.

Weapons and Equipment

The BPA was heavily equipped with Soviet-made weapons and technology. The ground forces used tanks like the T-55 and T-72, armored personnel carriers (APCs) such as the BTR-60, and various artillery systems. Bulgaria also produced its small arms, including the AK-47, under license. The military was equipped to deal with both conventional warfare and internal security threats.

Military Aviation

The Bulgarian Air Force was critical in the country’s defense strategy. It operated various Soviet aircraft, including the MiG-15, MiG-21, and later the MiG-23 fighters. By the 1980s, the Air Force had over 300 combat aircraft and helicopters, such as the Mi-24. The Air Force was organized into several air bases nationwide, providing a robust aerial defense capability.

Naval Forces

The Bulgarian Navy, although smaller than the ground and air forces, was a crucial component of the national defense. It operated primarily in the Black Sea, with its main bases in Varna and Burgas. The navy consisted of frigates, corvettes, and missile boats, with the Soviet-designed Riga-class frigates being the largest vessels. Bulgaria also maintained a small submarine fleet, including the Romeo-class submarines, primarily used for coastal defense and training.

These military forces were a central part of Bulgaria’s alignment with the Warsaw Pact, ensuring the country’s defense while also playing a role in the broader Soviet military strategy in Eastern Europe. The focus on Soviet technology and doctrines heavily influenced the BPA’s structure and operations throughout the communist period.

Cultural Exchanges and Soviet Influence

Cultural ties between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union were strong during this period. Soviet literature, cinema, and the arts were extensively promoted in Bulgaria. Educational exchanges were also common, with many Bulgarian students attending Soviet universities. The Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) mirrored Soviet practices in censorship, propaganda, and the suppression of dissent.

Lyudmila Zhivkova and Cultural Initiatives

Lyudmila Zhivkova, the daughter of Todor Zhivkov, became a key cultural figure during the 1970s. As the head of the Committee for Culture, she promoted cultural exchanges with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries. However, Zhivkova also sought to introduce broader cultural influences, including those from India and the West, leading to a unique blend of artistic activities in Bulgaria.

Bulgaria’s Role in the Eastern Bloc Economy

While we will delve into economic specifics in the following section, it is essential to note that Bulgaria’s economy was closely tied to the Eastern Bloc. Bulgaria’s integration into COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) meant that its economic policies were often aligned with Soviet interests. This reliance on the Soviet Union for trade and financial support significantly shaped Bulgaria’s industrial and agricultural policies during the communist era.

Bulgarian Economy During the Communist Era

The Bulgarian economy transformed under communist rule, with state control and centralized planning shaping its direction. Beginning in 1949, the government implemented Five-Year Plans focusing on industrialization and collectivization. Critical industries like energy, steel, and chemicals were nationalized, while agriculture was collectivized, impacting rural life.

Economic Policies and Decisions

During Bulgaria’s communist era, the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) emphasized rapid industrialization and agricultural collectivization as part of its economic strategy. The government initiated ambitious Five-Year Plans, prioritizing the development of heavy industry, including steel production, chemical manufacturing, and energy generation. Significant infrastructure projects, such as constructing power plants and expanding the railway network, were undertaken to support industrial growth.

Examples include the establishment of critical industrial complexes like the Kremikovtsi steel plant near Sofia, which became one of the largest steel producers in the region. The Maritsa Iztok energy complex was also developed to power the expanding industrial base.

The BCP implemented widespread collectivization policies in agriculture, merging small farms into large state-owned or cooperative farms. This approach aimed to increase agricultural productivity and align with Soviet models, but it often led to inefficiencies and reduced incentives for farmers. The lack of market mechanisms, coupled with central planning, resulted in frequent mismatches between supply and demand, leading to waste and shortages.

By the 1980s, the inefficiencies in the centrally planned economy began to manifest more severely. Inflation rates increased as the government struggled to manage the economy, leading to rising prices and declining living standards. Despite efforts to implement economic reforms, such as the New Economic Mechanism introduced in the late 1970s, these changes did not address the economy’s structural issues.

The reliance on heavy industry and large-scale agriculture, combined with the failure to innovate or adapt to global economic changes, contributed to the stagnation and eventual crisis that plagued Bulgaria in the 1980s. This economic decline, characterized by rising debt, inflation, and inefficiency, played a crucial role in undermining the legitimacy of the communist regime and setting the stage for the political changes of the late 1980s.

Key Economic Institutions

The Bulgarian National Bank (BNB) managed monetary policy, with specialized banks like the State Savings Bank (DSK) overseeing savings and investments. These institutions were central to implementing state economic policies.

Trade and Financial Challenges

Bulgaria’s economy was deeply integrated with the COMECON bloc, heavily reliant on exporting agricultural products, machinery, and chemicals to other socialist countries while importing vital resources like oil, machinery, and consumer goods from the Soviet Union. However, there were notable exceptions in Bulgaria’s business activities with the West.

For example, the Bulet company, established in the late 60s, facilitated joint ventures between Bulgaria and Western European partners focusing on trade and technology transfer. Another significant collaboration was with the French automaker Renault, which partnered with the Bulgarian state to produce and assemble vehicles. This partnership allowed Bulgaria to engage in limited but crucial economic exchanges with Western Europe, providing much-needed technology and investment. Despite these efforts, by the 1980s, Bulgaria faced severe financial challenges, including mounting debt, inflation, and declining industrial output, exacerbated by its limited access to Western markets.

Bulgaria’s Debt Crises (1958–1989)

Bulgaria experienced three significant debt crises between 1958 and 1989, each posing severe economic challenges.

The First Debt Crisis (1958–1962)

Bulgaria’s first major debt crisis resulted from aggressive industrialization in the 1950s, financed mainly through loans from Soviet banks such as Gosbank. By 1960, the external debt had reached 3 billion leva. The debt was owed primarily to Soviet banks, including Eurobank in Paris, Moscow Narodny Bank in London, and Western institutions like Deutsche Bank. To address the crisis, the Bulgarian government sold 90% of the Bulgarian National Bank’s gold reserves, amounting to 23.5 tons, to service the debt and avoid default.

The Second Debt Crisis (1973–1978)

The second crisis emerged after the 1970s oil shock triggered a global recession and significantly reduced Bulgaria’s export revenues. Despite importing Soviet oil at discounted rates, Bulgaria’s economy struggled to adapt, resulting in a sixfold increase in foreign debt within two years. By 1977, Bulgaria’s debt had reached critical levels, with institutions like Deutsche Bank and other Western banks refusing further credit. The communist government responded by cutting imports, limiting investments, and securing Soviet assistance, including rescheduled debt and new loans totaling 400 million transfer rubles from Gosbank.

The Third Debt Crisis (1980s)

The third debt crisis in Bulgaria during the 1980s resulted from escalating foreign debt, which exceeded $10 billion by the mid-1980s. This was mainly due to continued borrowing from Western banks such as Deutsche Bank, Credit Lyonnais, and the Bank of Tokyo, coupled with economic mismanagement and stagnant growth. The country’s heavy reliance on external financing and the inefficiency of state enterprises made the debt burden unsustainable.

The inability to service the debt without significant Soviet aid exposed the vulnerabilities of Bulgaria’s economy, contributing to the financial instability that played a crucial role in the collapse of the communist regime in 1989. These crises highlighted the flaws in Bulgaria’s centrally planned economy, particularly the dangers of over-reliance on foreign credit without substantial economic reforms.

The Decline of Communist Rule (1980s)

Economic Stagnation and Challenges

By the 1980s, Bulgaria’s centrally planned economy faced severe stagnation. The inefficiencies in the communist economic model and the global economic downturn led to widespread issues. Bulgaria’s heavy industry, which had been the backbone of the economy, was outdated and inefficient. The state continued to pour resources into these industries, but returns were diminishing. Inflation rose, and consumer goods became scarce. By the mid-1980s, Bulgaria’s foreign debt had ballooned to over $10 billion, exacerbating the economic crisis.

The global oil crisis further compounded the economic challenges. The government’s failure to modernize the economy and its reliance on Soviet support created a fragile economic situation. Attempts to introduce market-oriented reforms, such as the New Economic Mechanism, failed to yield significant results.

Political Unrest and Social Discontent

The economic decline led to growing dissatisfaction among the Bulgarian population. Citizens faced shortages of essential goods, long queues, and deteriorating living standards. The government’s inability to address these issues sparked unrest. Intellectuals, students, and workers began to voice their discontent more openly, encouraged by the broader democratization movements in Eastern Europe.

Dissident movements, though initially small, gained momentum throughout the decade. Influenced by Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) in the Soviet Union, Bulgarian intellectuals and political activists called for greater political freedoms and economic reforms. Underground publications, samizdat literature (self-publishing literature), and clandestine meetings became more common, laying the groundwork for organized opposition.

The Role and Fall of Todor Zhivkov

Todor Zhivkov led Bulgaria from 1954, shaping the nation’s communist policies under Soviet influence. As General Secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP), he maintained strict control, resisting reforms even as Eastern Europe began to shift.

Growing Internal and External Pressures

Internally, discontent within the BCP grew. Reformists, influenced by the winds of change (literally, the song Wind of Change became very popular at that time), blowing through the Soviet Union, began to see Zhivkov as a hindrance to progress. Externally, the Soviet Union under Gorbachev pressured Bulgaria to adopt reforms similar to those implemented in Poland and East Germany, where the Solidarity movement and mass protests signaled a shift away from hardline communism. In Poland, the Round Table Talks in early 1989 led to semi-free elections, while in East Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 marked the regime’s collapse.

The Fall of Todor Zhivkov

On November 10, 1989, amid the collapse of communist regimes across Eastern Europe, Todor Zhivkov was ousted by his own Politburo in a peaceful coup. Key figures within the BCP, including Petar Mladenov, orchestrated his removal, recognizing the need to adapt to the changing political climate. Mladenov, who had been critical of Zhivkov’s refusal to reform, assumed leadership, signaling a shift in Bulgaria’s political direction. Zhivkov’s fall mirrored the broader disintegration of communist power in the region, as seen with the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia and Hungary’s opening of its border with Austria.

Final Words

The decline of communist rule in Bulgaria during the 1980s was driven by economic failures, political unrest, and the inability of the regime to adapt to changing global dynamics. The fall of Todor Zhivkov in 1989 marked the end of an era and set the stage for Bulgaria’s transition to democracy. The legacy of this period is one of significant social and economic upheaval, which continues to shape Bulgaria’s modern history.

References and Sources

• Bulgaria’s Communist Era by R.J. Crampton
• A Concise History of Bulgaria by Richard J. Crampton
• Communism and the Emergence of Democracy by Harald Wydra
• Britannica Encyclopedia
• Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: from the Congress of Vienna to the fall of communism, Frucht, Richard C
• Slavic Review, Eugene M. Avrutin University of Illinois, USA
• East European Politics and Societies and Cultures, SAGE
• Project MUSE Databases, Johns Hopkins University
• Sofia University digital archives